Latin America is characterized by reinforcing class and racial hierarchies involving denigration of the popular mixed blood population, who are excluded both socially and economically by the white/light skinned middle and upper classes. This is the story of the rise of Chavismo. Hugo Chávez, elected in 1998, with generous revenues from the petroleum boom increased social spending and reduced poverty substantially. He too railed against U.S. imperialism. In a 2006 speech to the United Nations, he denounced American imperialism and referred to the U.S. president as the “devil.” While Venezuelan standards of beauty denigrate non-white characteristics, most Venezuelans are black, Indigenous or mixed race. As elsewhere throughout the region, middle and upper classes are white in Venezuela. Chávez’s physical appearance and his folksy method of delivering speeches garnered a close connection with the Venezuelan masses. There was a distinct racial/cultural component to his appeal and to the opposition to it: his opponents called Chávez a monkey and Chávez supporters “hordes of monkeys.” Like Peron, Chávez identified with, and promoted popular culture. He embraced his black and indigenous heritage, claiming that racial hatred against himself was due to his physical non caucasian appearance. Chávez’s successor, Nicolás Maduro, lacks his predecessor’s political skills and abundant petroleum revenue. Neither managed their economies well.

Because Chávez gave poor Venezuelans dignity in the broadest sense of the term, support for Chavismo will not disappear even when Maduro, who is widely disliked, leaves office. In reaction to the latest sanctions, Maduro has played the anti-imperialist card, identifying Donald Trump as an imperialist promoter of racism and white supremacy. This is a statement that will likely resonate with many Venezuelans. Venezuela is a deeply divided society and it will remain deeply divided until Venezuelans themselves grapple with their profound distributive and identity-based conflicts. Economic sanctions, particularly ones imposed by an imperialist power that is backing one side in this tragic struggle and is regarded as deeply racist, will not accomplish this task.